Tag: introversion

Why do I feel so inadequate despite my achievements ?

The Prevalence of Impostor Syndrome Among Female Leaders

Photograph copyright jacquelinebfotografie.com all rights reserved 2026 .

Impostor syndrome, a psychological phenomenon where individuals doubt their accomplishments and fear being exposed as frauds, according to the research is notably prevalent among female leaders: Female leaders experience impostor syndrome more acutely than their male counterparts due to societal expectations, gender stereotypes, and various professional challenges.

Contextual pressures

A key contributor to this disparity lies in the contextual pressures women face in traditionally male-dominated industries. Studies show that women leaders are often evaluated more harshly when engaging in assertive behaviours, which compounds their feelings of inadequacy (Koenig et al., 2011)Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Meta-analyses reveal that while women often exhibit superior transformational leadership qualities, their effectiveness may be undermined by existing biases that favour male leadership (Lowe et al., 1996). This dichotomy creates a double bind where women must navigate both the challenges of leadership and the societal stereotypes associated with their gender, leading to increased confidence issues.

Lack of inclusion combined with active discrimination

All too often, impostor phenomenon can be aggravated by prevalent discrimination within organizations. The “glass cliff” situation, where women leaders are appointed to leadership roles during times of crisis, makes them vulnerable to feelings of fraudulence (Eagly et al., 1995; Morgenroth et al., 2020). In contrast, male leaders typically do not experience this phenomenon to the same extent, reflecting the historical narratives surrounding male leadership qualities (Koenig et al., 2011).

In medical fields, the impostor phenomenon is particularly pronounced. Female medical professionals report higher rates of impostor syndrome than their male colleagues, often due to the internalization of societal beliefs that women do not belong in high-stakes positions (Gottlieb et al., 2019). This issue extends beyond individual feelings of fraudulence and can affect organizational dynamics; women may feel less inclined to pursue leadership roles, thereby limiting their career advancement opportunities (Fnais et al., 2014).

According to our recent research (Baxter, Patent and Winter, 2026, in press) those women who feel they are introverted are even more likely to suffer from impostor syndrome, due to cults of extroversion within organisations and models of leadership that are predominantly extroverted and/or paternalistic.

The Myth of meritocracy

Myths are powerful, and sadly, the myth of meritocracy undermines females in positions of power, as they struggle to accept their promotions and successes as deserved, attributing them to luck or external factors instead (Choi & Lee, 2025). This attribution style hinders personal growth and feeds into a cycle where women feel less competent, further isolating them from supportive networks that could alleviate these feelings (Perkins & Durkee, 2025).

In my view, addressing impostor syndrome in organizational settings requires not only a change in leadership dynamics but also a broader cultural shift that empowers female leaders to acknowledge their achievements and overcome self-doubt.

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References:
Bravata, D., Watts, S., Keefer, A., Madhusudhan, D., Taylor, K., Clark, D., … & Hagg, H. (2019). Prevalence, Predictors, and Treatment of Impostor Syndrome: a Systematic Review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35(4), 1252-1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1
Bravata, D., Watts, S., Keefer, A., Madhusudhan, D., Taylor, K., Clark, D., … & Hagg, H. (2019). Prevalence, Predictors, and Treatment of Impostor Syndrome: a Systematic Review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35(4), 1252-1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1
Chakraverty, D. (2022). Impostor Phenomenon and Identity-Based Microaggression Among Hispanic/Latinx Individuals in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics: A Qualitative Exploration. Violence and Gender, 9(3), 135-141. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2021.0061
Chakraverty, D. (2024). Workplace Violence and the Impostor Phenomenon in Medicine: A US-Based Qualitative Study. Violence and Gender, 11(2), 105-113. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2023.0062
Choi, J. and Lee, Y. (2025). Exploring the Impostor Phenomenon Among Korean Daycare Directors: A Grounded Theory Approach. Behavioral Sciences, 15(5), 565. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050565
Eagly, A. and Johnson, B. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 233-256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.233
Eagly, A. and Johnson, B. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 233-256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.233
Eagly, A., Karau, S., & Makhijani, M. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis.. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 125-145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.125
Fnais, N., Soobiah, C., Chen, M., Lillie, E., Perrier, L., Tashkhandi, M., … & Tricco, A. (2014). Harassment and Discrimination in Medical Training. Academic Medicine, 89(5), 817-827. https://doi.org/10.1097/acm.0000000000000200
Gottlieb, M., Chung, A., Battaglioli, N., Sebok‐Syer, S., & Kalantari, A. (2019). Impostor syndrome among physicians and physicians in training: A scoping review. Academic Medicine, 54(2), 116-124. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13956
Heilman, M. (2001). Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women’s Ascent Up the Organizational Ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657-674. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234
Iwai, Y., Yu, A., Thomas, S., Fayanju, O., Sudan, R., Bynum, D., … & Fayanju, O. (2023). Leadership and Impostor Syndrome in Surgery. Journal of the American College of Surgeons, 237(4), 585-595. https://doi.org/10.1097/xcs.0000000000000788
Iwai, Y., Yu, A., Thomas, S., Fayanju, O., Sudan, R., Bynum, D., … & Fayanju, O. (2023). Leadership and Impostor Syndrome in Surgery. Journal of the American College of Surgeons, 237(4), 585-595. https://doi.org/10.1097/xcs.0000000000000788
Kark, R., Meister, A., & Peters, K. (2021). Now You See Me, Now You Don’t: A Conceptual Model of the Antecedents and Consequences of Leader Impostorism. Journal of Management, 48(7), 1948-1979. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063211020358
Koenig, A., Eagly, A., Mitchell, A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms.. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616-642. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023557
Lowe, K., Kroeck, K., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the mlq literature. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 385-425. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1048-9843(96)90027-2
Morgenroth, T., Kirby, T., Ryan, M., & Sudkämper, A. (2020). The who, when, and why of the glass cliff phenomenon: A meta-analysis of appointments to precarious leadership positions.. Psychological Bulletin, 146(9), 797-829. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000234
Ok, F., Karip, B., & Baydili, K. (2025). Impostor syndrome and its association with anatomical self‐efficacy in medical students in Turkiye. Anatomical Sciences Education. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.70116
Penick, E., Beltran, T., & Foglia, L. (2023). Survey Highlighting Impostor Phenomenon (SHIP): Evaluating the Prevalence of Impostor Phenomenon Among Physicians in a Military Treatment Facility. Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development, 10. https://doi.org/10.1177/23821205231203827
Perkins, T. and Durkee, M. (2025). Impostor phenomenon among Black undergraduates: Contributions of microaggressions, gender, and school belonging.. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 31(4), 637-648. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000694
Sergesketter, A., Butler, P., Gosman, A., Leis, A., Baynosa, R., Momeni, A., … & Patel, A. (2023). Defining the Incidence of the Impostor Phenomenon in Academic Plastic Surgery: A Multi-Institutional Survey Study. Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 153(5), 1022e-1031e. https://doi.org/10.1097/prs.0000000000010821

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Managing dominant team members in meetings

Managing Dominant Team Members in Meetings

We’ve all been in team meetings where no one can get a word in edgeways due to dominant members of the team occupying the air space ! So why do some people feel the need to dominate and what can you do to address this ?

Effective team meetings are critical for fostering collaboration, making decisions, and driving projects forward. However, managing dominant team members can be a challenge, as their assertiveness may inadvertently stifle input from others, skew decision-making, or lead to frustration among quieter team members. By implementing strategic approaches grounded in research and best practices, leaders can create a more balanced and inclusive meeting environment. So why do certain people manifest dominance in meetings ?

Understanding Dominance in Team Dynamics

Dominance in meetings often manifests as frequent interruptions, monopolization of speaking time, or steering discussions towards personal interests. While dominant members may bring valuable insights and energy, their behavior can unintentionally overshadow the contributions of others, potentially diminishing the overall effectiveness of the group (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). Certain individuals may act dominant in meetings due to personality traits, such as high extraversion or assertiveness, or as a response to perceived threats to their status within the group. Additionally, dominance can arise from a desire to control outcomes or ensure their ideas are heard, particularly in high-stakes scenarios (Anderson & Brion, 2014; Wisse & Sleebos, 2016).

Strategies to Manage Dominant Participants

  1. Set Clear Expectations Begin meetings with a clear agenda and ground rules. Establishing norms such as “one person speaks at a time” and “every voice matters” creates a framework for respectful interaction (Lehmann-Willenbrock et al., 2011). Additionally, distributing the agenda beforehand allows all members to prepare their contributions, reducing the likelihood of any single person dominating.
  2. Facilitate Balanced Participation The role of the facilitator is critical in managing team dynamics. Techniques such as round-robin sharing or directed questions can ensure equal participation. For example, asking, “Let’s hear from someone who hasn’t spoken yet,” invites input from quieter members (Kerr & Tindale, 2004).
  3. Use Structured Techniques Structured decision-making tools, like brainstorming followed by prioritization or the Nominal Group Technique, (NGT ) can help balance participation. The NGT is a process by which individuals first generate ideas independently, followed by a group discussion to prioritize these ideas. This ensures that all contributions are considered before dominant voices can overly influence the discussion (Van Breda, 2019).These methods encourage individual input before group discussion, reducing the influence of dominant voices.
  4. Leverage Nonverbal Cues None verbal cues can be powerful in managing behaviours (ask any teacher !) . Facilitators can use nonverbal communication to subtly manage dominance. Making eye contact with quieter members, gesturing towards them to speak, or gently interrupting dominant participants with phrases like, “Let’s pause here to get others’ thoughts,” can help redistribute speaking time.
  5. Provide Feedback and Coaching Addressing dominant behavior privately can lead to positive changes. Frame feedback constructively, focusing on the impact of their behavior and suggesting alternative ways to contribute. For instance, say, “Your enthusiasm is valuable, but I’d like to ensure others have the opportunity to share their perspectives as well” (Hackman, 2002).
  6. Cultivate Psychological Safety Psychological safety—the belief that one can speak up without fear of negative consequences—is essential for inclusive meetings. Leaders should model vulnerability, acknowledge diverse viewpoints, and actively encourage participation from all members. (Allen et al, 2023)

Managing dominant team members requires a proactive and empathetic approach. By setting clear expectations, facilitating balanced participation, and fostering a culture of psychological safety, leaders can create a meeting environment where all voices are heard and valued. This not only enhances decision-making but also strengthens team cohesion and morale.

References

  • Anderson, C., & Brion, S. (2014). Perspectives on power in organizations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 67-97.
  • Allen, J, A. Lehmann-Willenbrock, The Key Features of workplace meetings: Conceptualising the why, how and what of meetings at work, Organisational Psychology Review, London Sage.
  • Delbecq, A. L., Van de Ven, A. H., & Gustafson, D. H. (1975). Group techniques for program planning: A guide to nominal group and Delphi processes. Scott, Foresman.
  • Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383.
  • Hackman, J. R. (2002). Leading teams: Setting the stage for great performances. Harvard Business Press.
  • Kerr, N. L., & Tindale, R. S. (2004). Group performance and decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 623-655.
  • Kozlowski, S. W., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7(3), 77-124.
  • Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., Meinecke, A. L., Rowold, J., & Kauffeld, S. (2011). How transformational leadership works during team interactions: Insights from a video-based field study. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(6), 1013-1024.
  • Wisse, B., & Sleebos, E. (2016). When the dark ones gain power: Perceived position power strengthens the effect of supervisor Machiavellianism on abusive supervision in work teams. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 122-126.

Are we allowing our introverts to shine in interviews ?

Interviews are still a key element within recruitment processes, but approaches used in interviews, disadvantage many good candidates, including those that display more introverted behaviours. So what is introversion and why might this happen ?

Introversion: A Brief Description

Introversion is a personality trait characterized by a preference for solitary or minimally stimulating environments, with a tendency to focus on internal thoughts and emotions rather than external stimuli. Introverts often find social interactions draining and require time alone to recharge, unlike extroverts who apparently gain energy from socializing. This does not imply that introverts are antisocial; rather, they prefer meaningful, smaller-scale interactions to large groups or high-energy social settings (Baxter et al , 2024).

Psychological research suggests that introversion exists on a spectrum, often assessed using personality frameworks such as the Big Five, where it contrasts with extroversion (McCrae & Costa, 1987). Introverts are typically reflective, introspective, and attentive to details, which can make them adept at creative and analytical tasks (Laney, 2002). Biological factors may contribute to introversion, with studies indicating that introverts exhibit higher cortical arousal, influencing their preference for quieter environments (Eysenck, 1967). However, many people may self-identify as introverts, without ever having completed psychometric testing. In these cases, their introversion has emerged via socio cultural routes, coloured by the perceptions of others. These perceptions have, over time, influenced their self perceptions, concomitantly influencing the ways in which they interpret their own strengths and weaknesses (Baxter et al , 2024).

Cultural perceptions of introversion vary; some societies, particularly in the West, may undervalue introverted traits, favoring extroverted ideals. Yet, understanding introversion’s strengths can foster inclusivity and appreciation of diverse personality types.

Interviews and bias

Job interviews often favour extroverted candidates, unintentionally side-lining introverts due to the way they’re structured and evaluated. Many interview processes reward assertiveness, quick thinking, and overt enthusiasm—qualities typically associated with extroversion. Meanwhile, introverts, who may excel in preparation, thoughtfulness, and deep focus, can be perceived as less confident or engaged, even if they’re just being authentic ; this is what is termed, ‘an extroverted deficit belief.’ (Lawn et al, 2019).

Group interviews are particularly challenging for introverts, as such settings often reward candidates who dominate discussions or quickly respond, leaving introverts at a disadvantage as their neural pathways differ from those of extroverts- they are longer, meaning they take longer to process information (Cunningham et al, 2019 )Additionally, body language expectations like constant eye contact or overly animated gestures can feel unnatural for an introvert, leading interviewers to mistakenly perceive them as unengaged (Baxter et al, 2024).

Bias

Unconscious bias can also creep in. Many recruiters, often extroverts themselves, might unknowingly prefer candidates who mirror their own communication styles . This can overshadow the valuable strengths introverts bring, such as listening skills, analytical thinking, and a capacity for independent work (Dane et al, ).

To combat this bias, interviewers should focus on the substance of responses, allow adequate reflection time, and recognize the diverse ways candidates can demonstrate enthusiasm and competence. This may mean doing away with traditional mechanisms such as presentations or on the spot questions. Allowing advance preparation time can be key. In short, there are 10 key ways that recruiters can allow introverts to shine in interviews:

Ten Key Strategies to Help Introverts Shine in Interviews

  1. Provide Advance Notice
    Share the interview format and potential questions ahead of time. This allows introverts to prepare thoughtful and detailed responses.
  2. Encourage Preparation
    Remind candidates they can bring notes or examples of past achievements to reference during the conversation.
  3. Offer Reflection Time
    Avoid putting candidates on the spot with rapid-fire questions. Allow moments for them to think before answering.
  4. Focus on Depth, Not Just Speed
    Value the substance of answers over how quickly they’re delivered. Introverts often excel at giving well-considered responses.
  5. Adapt Interview Styles
    Use a one-on-one or small-panel format instead of group interviews, which can feel overwhelming for introverts.
  6. Create a Comfortable Environment
    Minimize unnecessary distractions or overly formal settings to help candidates feel at ease.
  7. Ask Open-Ended Questions
    Use questions that invite elaboration, such as “Can you share an example of…” to help introverts showcase their skills.
  8. Balance Verbal and Non-Verbal Cues
    Understand that introverts may not display high-energy body language but can convey enthusiasm in other ways, like precise language.
  9. Acknowledge Diverse Communication Styles
    Appreciate calm, measured responses and avoid interpreting them as disinterest.
  10. Provide Follow-Up Opportunities
    Offer a chance for candidates to share additional thoughts after the interview, which aligns with their reflective nature.

In failing to recognise introverted preferences and strong points, recruiters are failing to provide inclusive recruitment strategies. In the longer term this has a negative effect not only on candidates but in acquisition of talent more broadly.

Baxer, J., Patent, V., & Winter, A. (2024). Does Self-perceived introversion create a barrier to leadership emergence in Higher Education: a case study approach. In S.Huber (Ed.), The International Handbook for Governance, Leadership, Administration, and Management in Education Geneva: Palgrave.

Cunningham, G. B., & Ahn, N. Y. (2019). The role of bias in the under-representation of women in leadership po sitions Routledge Handbook of the Business of Women’s Sport (pp. 83-94): Routledge.

Dane, P. B., Madelynn, R. D. S., & Shelley, D. D. Righting the balance: Understanding introverts (and extraverts) in the workplace. International Journal of Management Reviews. doi: 10.1111/ijmr.12268

Lawn, R. B., Slemp, G. R., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2019). Quiet flourishing: The authenticity and well-being of trait introverts living in the west depends on extraversion-deficit beliefs. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(7), 2055-2075.

Rudolf, S., Cornelius, J. K., & Yannik, Z. Executive Search Consultants’ Biases Against Women (or Men?). Frontiers in psychology. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.541766

Resources and blog posts relating to introverted leadership and inclusive practices.

Management Today: https://www.managementtoday.co.uk/does-introvert-hamper-chances-making-senior-management/personal-development/article/1811100:Does being an introvert hamper your chances of making senior management?

Do the HEXACO TEST AT : https://hexaco.org/scaledescriptions

BBC Ideas : BBC Ideas Programme, Writer and voiceover, https://www.bbc.co.uk/ideas/videos/the-power-of-quiet-leadership/p0929tnh now with 168 thousand views.

Academic identities project resources

~The Art of Quiet leadership

This post first appeared on the OpenLearn Website : https://www.open.edu/openlearn/money-business/leadership-management/quiet-leadership-post-covid-world

The last ten years have seen the rise of populist leaders, characterised by their extroverted ‘style before substance’ self-promotion approach.

Individuals such as Donald Trump; Boris Johnson and Jair Bolsonaro, promote the ideal of the pushy extroverted leader, who speaks without thinking, reacts rapidly and excitedly and changes tack frequently.

For some time now there has been a general perception that you are better off in the workplace, and as a leader, if you have extrovert tendencies: In other words, if you are ‘boastful and booming’ rather than ‘contemplative and calm’. But research on quiet more introverted styles of leadership has shown that introverts may be far better suited to today’s challenges.

Introversion Vs extroversion

The perception that extroverted individuals make better leaders, is influenced by the fact that there are more extroverts in leadership positions, combined with the fact that extroverts are much more likely to tell you how good they are. The traits of extroversion and introversion, first introduced by the famous psychologist Carl Jung, are generally characterised by garrulous outgoing and energetic behaviours in extroverts, whereas introverted characters are more likely to be calm, reflective and often prefer the written to the spoken medium.

In actual fact, according to most personality tests that set out to measure these tendencies, behaviours are more often placed on a continuum rather than being confined to one extreme or the other: Ambiversion-the ability to shift between introverted and extroverted behaviours, is very common, for example, salespeople that on one hand, need to listen deeply, on the other, talk enthusiastically about their products (Kahnweiler, 2009,p, 3). …studies found that extrovert’s positive outlook can make them more resilient to stress…

Some studies, such as one that looked at extroversion in the workplace from a multiple countries perspective, found that extroverts are more likely to rise to leadership positions due to a greater motivation to achieve external goals, such as a promotion or increased salary. These studies found that extrovert’s positive outlook can make them more resilient to stress and more likely to bounce back from failure, both recognized qualities of strong leaders (Ledesma, 2014).  

But according to Susan Cain, author of the bestselling book ‘Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World that can’t stop talking’, society as a whole undervalues introverts, particularly as leaders. She argues that without introverts we wouldn’t have leadership achievements such as The Apple computer, or theory of relativity – Steve Jobs and Albert Einstein were both introverts.Graphic of introverts VS ExtrovertsCopyrighted image IconFigure 1 Adapted from information in (Kahnweiler, 2009)

The power of the introverted quiet leader

So what do introverts bring to leadership positions and how can they overcome their key challenges?

Research shows that introverts can bring a great deal to the table in leadership positions: they are more likely to listen and process the ideas of their team; they consider ideas deeply before acting; they are humble and more likely to credit their team for ideas and performance; they express themselves and their ideas well in writing and because their motivation generally comes from within, are less likely to compromise performance in seeking rewards such as money or power.

For this reason, their judgement is less likely to be compromised through excitement or promise of rich rewards.  However, there is a downside: Many western societies, including the US, have long favoured extroverted behaviours: Psychologist, Robert McCrae created a map of the world, showing the extent to which, different countries favour introverted or extroverted qualities (McCrae & Terracciano, 2005). Asian /oriental societies erred on the side of favouring introverted qualities whilst Western cultures revealed the opposite.

However, the Western predilection to favour extroversion has resulted in many leadership courses, such as MBAs being structured to favour extroverted activities such as; talking about achievements or large group presentations. These can leave introverted students feeling they lack the qualities necessary for ‘good leadership’.

So what are introverts key challenges and how do should they overcome them?

Jennifer Kahnweiler’s studies into leadership challenges for introverts revealed six key factors which can hold introverts back from rising to leadership postiions:

  1. People exhaustion (draining of energy due to too many people contact)
  2. Fast pace (leaving little time for reflection)
  3. Interruptions (particularly difficult given our ‘always on’ world)
  4. A pressure to self-promote
  5. An emphasis on teamwork
  6. An aversion towards negative impressions (introverts’ facial expression doesn’t often reveal their emotion as readily as extroverts)

She advocates a 4 Ps Process to overcome these challenges:

Preparation

Try to prepare in advance for people heavy situations such as meetings, create your questions when you have time to think about them

Presence

Show people, you are present by showing you are interested and aware through making eye contact or asking a question

Push

Push yourself out of your comfort zone as often as possible: more pain more gain!  

Practice 

Practice new behaviours such as telling stories, public speaking

Yet today’s world seems to demand extroverted qualities more than ever: leaders are expected to respond rapidly to increasingly complex scenarios; news travels faster than ever in an ‘always-on world,’ so why do we need more introverts in leadership positions?

Introverted leaders for the future

Introverted leaders have a great deal to offer in our complex and increasingly chaotic world: The creativity and staying power of introverts are vital to solving long term problems such as climate change or the increased possibility of worldwide viruses such as Covid19, which emerge due to complex social and ecological factors.

In addition, introverts recognize fellow introverts- introverts makeup 40-60% of the workforce if they are undervalued or not recognised, as is often the case if their leader is an extrovert, they are more likely to leave.

Finally, leaders cannot resolve complex problems without listening to their experts, failure to do so has been a leitmotif of populist leaders whose performance at controlling covid19 has been little short of catastrophic. Given these factors, it could well be the day of the populist extrovert is over and the time for the reflective quiet leader, is indeed upon us.